【读书】《萨特引论》
萨特引论
《存在与虚无》问题的提出
存在是指的意识之外的世界，也就是自在的存在，而虚无则指的是意识，指的是人的存在，即自为的存在。萨特理论的出发点是现象，他认为胡塞尔的现象学是哲学史上一重大成就。在萨特看来，并不存在什么抽象的超越现象的本质，本质是由一系列的显示存在者的显现决定的。显现并不隐藏本质，而是揭示本质：它就是本质。萨特认为这样就可以消除本质与现象之间的二元对立。
从这种本体论出发，萨特把存在的现象和现象的存在区别开来。存在的现象是本体的，它的揭示是通过诸如烦恼、厌恶等体验的。它只有在显现时才存在，它并不隐藏在现象之后。它并不是我们认识的东西，但却是认识的根据，存在的根据。而“现象的存在”则是未显露为现象的存在，是应当被揭示的东西，它超出了人们对它的认识，它等待着人们去认识。
在此基础上，萨特提出了反思前的我思的问题。在萨特看来，反思思维本身不能成为起点，在反思前要有非反思，即非认识的意识。萨特的“反思前的我思”实际上是一种纯粹的“虚空”，是对笛卡尔的“我思”的改造。萨特要证明的是：由于意识是空空如也的，所以，这种绝对无人称的主观性只有面对着一个被揭示的东西才能确立。
意识是这样一种存在，它的存在确定了本质，而反过来说，意识是对一个存在的认识，这个存在的本质蕴含着存在，也就是说，它的显现要求存在。
这就引出了自在存在的概念。自在的存在、存在是其所是、存在是自在的，这就是自在存在的三个基本特点。
在《存在与虚无》中，萨特主要要解决如下五个问题：
1.这两种类型的存在的深刻意义是什么？
2.为什么说这两种存在在一般意义上来讲是属于“存在”的？
3.既然存在自身中包括两个截然不同的领域，那存在的意义是什么？
4.如果说，唯心论和实在论对解释这个实际并不可交流领域的关系问题都归于失败的话，那人们是否能对此有别的解决方法？
5.现象的存在是如何超现象的？
虚无
否定只是在一种判断行为中才出现的，因为可以否定，所以才有了否定。否定存在即非存在，自在的存在并不是处处都在，而确有虚无的存在。但为了否定存在，那就必须以某种方式提出虚无的问题。
萨特的虚无并不是纯粹的无，不是一种安置存在的无限的虚空，也不是一种与“存在”相对立的形而上学的实体，而是从他的意识出发的意识的非实体性和意识的一种不断形成否定的可能性。
人就是这个虚无由之来到这个世界的存在。例如戒指中间的空洞与金子一样重要，二者缺少其一，便不称其为戒指。虚无也是。
萨特用生命、自杀、死亡这三维来对应存在、否定和虚无。去自杀的人就是向生提出疑问，而通过这个人，自杀就来到生命之中。
焦虑
焦虑是自由的开端，是解放的信号。焦虑与恐惧是有区别的，比如我在悬崖边眩晕起来，这就是焦虑，这焦虑并不是害怕（害怕是恐惧失足掉入悬崖，而正因为害怕掉下去，我在走路时便产生焦虑）。焦虑是害怕我害怕，是在自由前面的第一步。
他人
他人是冲突的根源。他人和我一样是自为的存在，和物是绝对不同的。因为我既不能把他人引向我自身，又不能把它构成一个纯粹的对象，而他人的出现要把我固定在我所是的存在中。他人成为了从我这里把世界窃取的存在者，使以我为中心的世界分裂。
我与他人是通过“注视”发生关系的。我原本在这个世界中是一个自为的存在，但当他人的目光落到我的身上时，我本身就发生了变化。在他人的注视下，我成为了一种“自在”，变成了“为他人的存在”，被固定了。
在萨特的自由观中，打碎他人的这种枷锁争取自身的解放尤为重要。
自由
什么是行动？一个抽烟的人行动不灵便不小心把仓库点燃了，这件事不能说明抽烟者行动了。行动是目的、行为、结果三者相辅相成的。行动的首要条件是自由，行动是选择的行动。
人是绝对自由的，因为人的选择永远是自由的。萨特论证的一种是绝对的自由，但并不意味着为所欲为。自由是完全的和无限的，这并不意味着它没有限制，而只能说明它不会碰到这种限制，自由每时每刻碰到的唯一限制只是它强加给自己的那些限制。
选择的自由与得到的自由是完全不同。选择的自由是永恒的，有许多东西人们很可能永远得不到，但却永远可以自由地选择行动。
自由是在特定的处境下的，这种处境包括：地点、过去、周围、邻人、死亡。
自由是要承担责任的。既然人命定是自由的，他把整个世界的重量都担负在自己肩上，他要对世界负责任，对自己负责任。如果，我选择了战争，这个战争就成为了我的战争，它就作为处境成为我的自由选择的图像。
自由就是萨特的“上帝”。
——————————————————————————————————————
这本书是杜小真老师评介萨特的小书，仅200多页，可作为研究萨特的引论。杜小真老师是国内目前研究萨特最深入的专家，这本《萨特引论》被人称为“牛逼的速成读物”。在书中杜老师浓缩了萨特的生平和主要著作思想。其中第三、四章对《存在与虚无》的评述是本书的精华部分。截取部分笔记，记录于此。
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本文链接地址: 【读书】《萨特引论》
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